American Intelligence In The Cuban Missile Crisis History Essay

American Intelligence In The Cuban Missile Crisis History Essay The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 brought the world close to a nuclear confrontation between the United States, Cuba, and the Soviet Union. The Cuban missile crisis was triggered by the Soviet deployment to Cuba of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads. It was the result of a variety of things: the Cuban Revolution, the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion, US anti-communism, the insecurity of the Soviet Union, and Cubas fear of invasion. From the start of the crisis, American intelligence monitored the islands development and was able to collect and analyze information, but it miscalculated the Soviet Unions intentions and motivation for placing nuclear missiles in Cuba. American intelligence, through human intelligence gathering methods, aerial photoreconnaissance, and signal interceptions, was able to discover Soviet missiles in Cuba, and thwart the possibility of a nuclear war. This intelligence provided the U.S with a great deal of in formation about its enemies military units, missiles, weapons and strength. The events of the Cuban Missile Crisis revealed the sophistication of the U.S. intelligence community, especially in its ability to collect and analyze information. Human Intelligence (HUMIT) obtained inside information concerning Cuba from Refugees, and important secrets transferred to U.S. Government by Soviet Colonel Oleg Penkovsky. Photographic intelligence (PHOTINT) played an exceedingly important part (the U-2 reconnaissance spy-plane) in taking internal terrestrial images of the Island. Signals intelligence (SIGINT) was used to block communication between Soviet Union and Cubans during the crisis to the advantage of the Americans. Cuban Missile Crisis Background Fidel Castro came to power after the Cuban Revolution. At first the U.S. supported Castro, but when he embraced communism, the U.S. attempted to overthrow Castros rule in Cuba. In April 1961, Americans used CIA-trained and armed Cuban exiles (La Brigada) in the Bay of Pigs invasion but failed. After the failed invasion of the Bay of Pigs, it was evident to the Castro that the U.S. would attack again, causing him to make concessions with the Soviet Union in order to defend Cuba. Consequently, Soviet Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev eagerly extended an offer of assistance to the desperate Castro and saw an opportunity to gain a strategic foothold in Americas backyard. Castro allowed the Soviet Union to place military bases on the island of Cuba, in exchange for protection against any U.S. invasion attempts. After Castros approval, Khrushchev quickly and secretly built ballistic missile installations in Cuba in the summer of 1962. When the U.S discovered ballistic missiles presence in Cuba, it elevated tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. When the missiles installation were discovered by intelligence, President John F. Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine (blockade) of Cuba and threatened to invade Cuba; as a result, the Soviet Union pledged to withdraw from Cuba if the U.S. did not invade and finally the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved. The American Intelligence Role in the Pre-Cuban Missile Crisis The Cuban missile crisis started in a series of American intelligence blunders that started under the Dwight Eisenhower administration and continued into the John F. Kennedy administration. The American intelligence agency devised Operation Mongoose, which was aimed to expel the powerful Castro and his regime. The Operation Mongoose plot included economic and political destabilization, propaganda, manipulation, sabotage, assignation plots and direct assistance to anti-Castro Cubans in military training. During the Cold war, Cuban refugees provided inaccurate inside information about Cuba and Castro, and such information was able to convince the Americas Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to initiate the covert Bay of Pigs operation on April 17th, 1961 to overthrow the Castro communist regime. Cuban exiles, trained by the CIA, staged a botched invasion at Cubas Bay of Pigs, but the CIAs planned invasion ended in complete failure due to miscalculations by the CIA and a lack of resources and support from the American military. U.S. intelligence misunderstood the nature of Fidel Castros insurgency and miscalculated the likelihood of his victory. Operation Mongoose (Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba is a part of this operation) is also partially responsible for initiating the Cuban Missile Crisis as Cuban intelligence was able to discover that America planned to assassinate Castro through Operation Mongoose. Castro was worried about Cubas safety; on the other side, the Soviet Union was also worried about losing a valuable ally in Cuba. Moreover, the Soviets had the intention to compensate for Soviet inferiority in ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missile) and liked to reply to the Americans with a nuclear version of tit-for-tat as noted by Khrushchevs advisor Fyodor Burlatsky: Khrushchev and Soviet Defence Minister R. Malinovsky à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ were strolling along the Black Sea coast. Malinovsky pointed out to sea and said that on the other shore in Turkey there was an American nuclear missile base. In a matter of six or seven minutes missiles launched from that base could devastate major centres in the Ukraine and southern Russ ia. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Khrushchev asked Malinovsky why the Soviet Union should not have the right to do the same as America. Why, for example, should it not deploy missiles in Cuba? However, from the American perspective, installing nuclear-armed Jupiter intermediate range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) in Turkey helped secure NATOs southern flank, which also helped cement relations with Turkey, and enhanced their nuclear deterrent with the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union viewed these missiles and their threat very differently. Nevertheless, U.S. covert attempts to depose the Cuban regime seemed to provoke Cuban and Soviet defences and directly led to the deployment of the Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba. It is true that American intelligence played a role in causing the Cuban Missile Crisis, and to a certain extent failed to estimate that Soviet leadership would deploy strategic missiles in Cuba. Furthermore, CIA agents in Cuba or the Soviet Union were incapable to provide solid indication of the Soviet missiles deployment. Some information was received from other Western intelligence organizations, CIA agents on the island and refugees, but little attention was given to the discovery of the missiles. The US military intelligence agencies with some support from Western allies tracked the Soviet arms shipping to Cuba. In July 1962, SlGlNT collectors listened to the radio messages to and from the Soviet vessels on their way to Cuba. These messages are interpreted and provided some indication about how Soviet vessels calling on Cuban ports were making false port declarations and declaring less than the known cargo-carrying capacity (Carrying heavy military weapons) , but no real conside ration is given due to insufficient evident. Satellite photographic reconnaissance was not directed against Cuba in 1962. On August 29th a U-2 spy-plane on reconnaissance over Cuba, brought back evidence that SA-2 surface-to-air (SAM) missiles has been installed around San Cristobal, but Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin advised President Kennedys closest advisor, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, that the installations were entirely defensive in nature. American intelligence (COMOR-The interagency Committee on Overhead Reconnaissance) decided to send another U-2 spy-plane to take a closer look, but bad weather delayed the fight until October 14th. On September 19th, 1962 American estimators issued Special National Intelligence Estimate (SNIE 85-3-62) on The Military Build-up in Cuba but failed to estimate what the Soviet Union would do, based on insufficient evidence, Soviet intentions, and the past Soviet behaviour. In fact, Soviet intelligence performed better in the pre-crisi s period, and they were able to transport nearly 50,000 Soviet troops, 100 tactical nuclear weapons, possibly four to six nuclear naval mines and 60 nuclear warheads for the surface-to-surface missile sites in Cuba via covert action. The American Intelligence Role during the Cuban Missile Crisis For the United States, the crisis began on October 15, 1962, when photographs from a U-2 reconnaissance aircraft revealed several SS-4 nuclear missiles at San Cristobal, Cuba. The early morning of October 16th, President John Kennedy was informed of the missile installations. Kennedy immediately convened his Executive Committee (EX-COMM), a group of his twelve most important advisors (Such as CIA Director John McCone, Secretary of Defence Robert S. McNamara, National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy) to handle the unfolding crisis. During the crisis, US intelligence was able to accurately identify the location, operational status of the missile deployment, provision of MiG-21 fighters, SA-2 antiaircraft missile systems, 11-28 light bombers, missile torpedo boats, and coastal defence cruise missiles, and the numbers of these systems. Furthermore, low level reconnaissance allowed discovering the additional military forces, in particular four Soviet augmented ground force regiments, each with 31 tanks, and with six to eight Luna rocket artillery launchers It can be seen that PHOTOINT (currently called Imint- Imaging Intelligence) or aerial reconnaissance really played a vital role in Cuban Missile Crisis. Photoreconnaissance Intelligence had done an incredible job by providing credible evidence of offensive missiles in Cuba (see pictures 1 to 3 on last page of this document, taken from U-2 spy-plane during Cuban Missile Crisis) and helped policy makers and their advisors to make decisions based on solid photograph ic evidence. As McCone indicated, aerial photography was our best means of establishing hard [firm] intelligence HUMIT was also used by interviewing refugees, collecting reports from CIA agents on island, and Soviet secret from Soviet Officer Oleg Penkovsky. American military personnel interrogated unverified refugees from Cuba on American soil, who revealed that they had personally seen a convoy of SS-4 missiles near Havana. But this was not itself sufficient due to the mass of other invalid reports during or before the crisis period. Many reports are provided from agents on the Island about suspicious military movement, possible missiles and other defensive activities in Cuba. Colonel Oleg Penkovsky, a Soviet Military Intelligence officer, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and British intelligence (MI-6), all suggested that the Soviets were attempting to put missiles into Cuba but this information was not given credibility until it was subsequently confirmed through aerial reconnaissance. Oleg Penkovsky supplied 111 exposed rolls of film, 99 percent of which were legible. An estimated 10, 000 pages of intelligence reports were produced from his information, which included the top secret operating manuals for the SS-4 and SS-5 missiles. Information from Penkovsky-provided documents was compared with the U-2 photography, and analysts were able to identify positively the specific missiles being placed in Cuba and determine on a daily basis the stage of construction of each missile site. This information was critical in enabling the President to know how much time he had to determine and apply a policy of diplomatic and military pressure against Khrushchev before having to take direct military action. Colonel Oleg Penkovskys role in the Cuban missile crisis has been portrayed as of pre-eminent importance to the outcome, and described as Humints best source of information during the crisis. It is true that SIGINT provided no warning of the presence of Soviet nuclear-armed intermediate and medium-range ballistic missiles in Cuba prior to their discovery by U-2 reconnaissance aircraft. The Oxford, officially known as a Technical Research Ship (TRS), proved to be the largest producer of SIGINT during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The collected communications from SIGINT provided a great quantity of information which, when combined with the photographs from the U2 over-flights, provided a very good picture of what was happening in Cuba. SIGINT also helped during the midst of the crisis, to intercept and triangulate messages and sent to the Command Centre for interpretation, then used by the US government to make further decision and predict future actions of the Soviet Union and Cuba. Another type of intelligence that was used for the first time was the SOSUS (underwater sound surveillance system). SOSUS plus patrol aircraft was extensively and successfully used during the Cuban Missile Crisis and proved to be an important aspect of U.S intelligence in detecting any possible Soviet submarine movement (especially Soviet Foxtrot class submarines). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ªAfter analyzing all the evidence from different sources of the intelligence and having an intense policy debate with the Executive Committee group members, Kennedy imposed a naval quarantine around Cuba. On October 22, Kennedy publicly announced the discovery of the ballistic missile installations and his decision to quarantine (blockade) the island to prevent Soviet ships from carrying further missile equipment to the island. He also proclaimed that any nuclear missile launched from Cuba would be regarded as an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union and demanded that the Soviets remove all of their offensive weapons from Cuba. Later, on the 26th EX-COMM heard from Khrushchev that the Soviets agreed to remove the ballistic missiles from Cuba, if the U.S. would guarantee not to invade Cuba. On October 27th, tension increased when a U-2 was shot down over Cuba and Khrushchev demanded the removal of U.S. missiles in Turkey in exchange for Soviet missiles in Cuba. But Attorney General Robert Kennedy suggested ignoring the second letter and contacted Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin to tell him of the U.S. agreement with the first (not to invade Cuba). Finally, on October 28th, Khrushchev announced that he would dismantle the installations and return the missiles to the Soviet Union. Further negotiations were held to implement the October 28 agreement and it continued in November. Again American intelligence helped to provide evidence to the American government that the Soviets turned their ships back, a fact first learned from SIGINT from radio messages, and soon the Soviets dismantled and withdrew the missil es. The U.S. Navy also played a pivotal role in this crisis, demonstrating the critical importance of naval forces to national defence. Surface and submarine units moved into place to attack any ship crossing the declared line in the quarantine operation. A week of intensive face-off and direct communications between President Kennedy and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev finally made it possible to alleviate the crisis. The American government and the Communist Bloc both considered the crisis over. Conclusion In summary, Espionage has been, and always be a central source of information to support national defense. The performance of US intelligence in the Cuban Missile Crisis was generally good, in some respects outstanding, albeit with a few shortcomings. From the beginning, American Intelligence made all possible efforts to collect, analyze and monitor the Soviet activities and arms build-up in Cuba, but erroneously underestimated the Soviet leaders intention to station nuclear weapons in Cuba. Moreover, the use of U-2 aircraft for aerial photoreconnaissance over the interior of Cuba, Cuban refugee interrogations, and Soviet secrets (manuals for the SS-4 and SS-5 missiles) provided by Penkovskys espionage, gave the U.S. excellent intelligence coverage of the status of missile site construction and readiness. American intelligence community worked well during the crisis, and helped policy makers, senior intelligence estimators and analyst to make better decisions and evaluate Soviet reac tions based on intelligence-provided evidence. The CIA played a leading role in backing up the EXComm. Intelligence organizations of the army, navy, and air force provided backup to the military planners. Overall, American Intelligence role in Cuban Missile Crisis was good and helped government to resolve crisis.

Human Gene Therapy :: Biology Genetics Essays

Human Gene Therapy Everybody carries about half a dozen defective genes. Many don't know this, unless someone they know is affected by a genetic disorder.(1) The genetics of many diseases are passed from one generation to the next by inheriting a single gene, such as Huntington's disease. Many other diseases and traits are influenced by a collection of genes.(4) About one in ten people has, or will develop, an inherited genetic disorder. Approximately 2,800 specific conditions are known to be caused by defects, or mutations, in just one gene. Most of us don't suffer any harmful effects from our defective genes because we carry two copies of nearly all genes. In most cases one normal gene is enough to avoid all the symptoms of disease. If the affected gene is recessive, and we inherit two copies of the gene, the disease will develop. If the affected gene is dominant, only one copy is enough produce the disease. There are also X-chromsome linked genetic diseases.(1) A potential approach to the treatment of genetic disorders in humans is gene therapy. Gene therapy is the delivery of a correct version of a mutated gene to a cell, where its expression will produce the normal protein and restore normal cellular function. The mutated gene must be delivered to the nucleus of the cell.(2) There are essentially two forms of gene therapy, somatic gene therapy and germline gene therapy. Somatic gene therapy involves the manipulation of gene expression in cells that will be corrective to the patient but not inherited by the next generation.(4) Germline gene therapy involves the replacement of defective genes in the germline cells, which contribute to the genetic heritage of the offspring. It has the potential to affect not only the individual being treated, but also his or her children. Germline therapy would change the genetic pool of the entire human species, and future generations would have to live with that change. It is not likely germline therapy will be tried on humans in the near future due to ethical problems and technical difficulties.(1) In vivo gene transfer is the introduction of genes to cells at the site at which they are found in the body. Ex vivo gene transfer is the transfer of genes into viable cells that have been temporarily removed from the patient and are then returned following treatment.(6) Foreign DNA can be injected into the cell, or its entry can be facilitated by various chemical or electronic ways, but these methods aren't very efficient.

Farenheit 451 Essay

There is a novel published in the 1950s with a title of Fahrenheit 451. The book was published by Ray Bradbury and involves a futuristic plot where most of the things in the society are in chaotic state. This novel was a success in the contemporary times of the 50Ð ²Ãâ€šÃ¢â€ž ¢s and now, you could write a Fahrenheit 451 essay as a school paper requirement. Before you begin writing such an essay, it is important that you first read the novel. This is the case for all types of essays that need to tackle a certain material. Much like writing a Macbeth essay or a Romeo and Juliet essay, a Fahrenheit 451 essay is written only after the writer has completed reading the book. So what are the possible types of essays that we can write for Fahrenheit 451 essay? One can talk about a novel by using different approaches in writing an essay. One good example is a narrative essay. You can re-tell the story in the novel and summarize the whole thing for your readers to have an idea about it. A narrative essay is not all about fictional story from the writer. It may also involve any types of stories that may even come from an actual source. Be careful when you summarize the story in Fahrenheit 451 because you only need to compress the details of the book into your paper. You can write an argumentative essay that will talk about a specific notion or idea in Fahrenheit 451. For example, you may argue that the book projects an idea of chaos and disturbing scenarios to the readers. These factors may contribute to the feeling of doubt among the readers that could make them uncomfortable in a psychological perspective. Of course, there is another side of an argument where the story could be a well-done preparation for the readers on what they should expect of the future. A Fahrenheit 451 essay can also be in the form of a character analysis essay. You can talk about the major persona in the novel and discuss how each one contributed to the success of the story. You may also write about the central character and analyze who that character is in our present society. Start with the central character by the name of Guy Montag who happens to be a firefighter. Analyze his character and discuss his main role in the plot of the novel. One more essay type for a Fahrenheit 451 essay can be in the form of a critical analysis essay. Write about the story in a way that you tend to dig much deeper into the realms of the authorÐ ²Ãâ€šÃ¢â€ž ¢s imagination. Discover new things about the central message of the whole story and what lessons we can learn from it.

Endagerment of the grizzlies

Endagerment of the grizzlies With all the new and advanced technology that is accessible today, who has time to enjoy or care about the great outdoors? Unfortunately, much of the wilderness and the animals within it are gradually fading away. There are many animals that have already been extinct and many more will soon be put on the list of extinction. In the second issue of Target Earth, Tim Stevens found in 1975, the grizzly bear was listed as a threatened species, under the Endangered Species Act. Stevens also stated, Today, the grizzly bear hangs on in the last remnants of wild places left in the U.S.places like the Greater Yellowstone, Glacier Park, and Shelkirk Mountains of Northern Idaho. The survival of the grizzly bear depends on several factors such as: amount of food they need and amount of space they need to live.Grizzly bears have tremendous food requirements in order to surviveadult females average 300 pounds, and males around 450 pounds, stated Stevens.The two Grizzly bears in the Bear Country sec tion ...Furthermore, grizzly bears are opportunistic feeders thriving on roots, berries, pine nuts, insects, herbaceous vegetation, fish, small mammals, and occasionally wild ungulates and their young. With grizzly bears wide variety of provisions, they need a large area to sustain themselves. Stevens stated, a male grizzly bear will use up to a 500 square mile "home range" throughout its life. Glover and Johnson stated, a female grizzly bear will use up 11-490 square miles throughout its life. Being that the grizzly bear is a wide-ranging, slow breeding species, and as such, are very good indicators of the overall health of the ecosystems they depend upon. If the habitat is in good shape, one could assume the bear is doing rather well(Stevens, Target Earth).However, conservation biologist states, none of the current grizzly populations is large enough to sustain itself over...

Free Essays on Odessey Women

Many people regard Homer’s epics as war stories- stories about men; those people often overlook the important roles that women play in the Odyssey. While there are not many female characters in the Odyssey, the few that there are, play critical roles in the story and one can gain a lot of insight by studying how those women are portrayed. Homer portrays the females in conflicting ways: the character of Athena is given a strong, admirable role, while the Sirens are depicted in a much more negative way. Penelope- the central female character- is given both negative and positive attributes. Athena, the goddess of wisdom and battle, has a soft spot for Odysseus, the main male character, and Telemachus, Odysseus' son. The action begins with a meeting of the gods, where Athena makes a plea on behalf of Odysseus, asking her father, â€Å"O Zeus, what do you hold against him now?† (I, 81). This action, paired with another intervention into a meeting of the gods, shows Athena’s initiative and nerve. Athena shows cleverness and ingenuity when she disguises herself and others on several occasions: The goddess first appears as Mentes, and then later as Mentor, Telemachus himself, Penelope’s sister, a friend of Nausikaa’s, and various servants. Not only is Athena a master of disguises, but she also has an incredible sense of when it is necessary to appear as someone else in order to achieve her goals. While possibly just a product of Athena’s goddess status, her ability to view the â€Å"big picture† is quite a highly regarded trait. Athe na also has the virtue of restraint, which she demonstrates when she does not take part in the final battle between Odysseus and Telemachus, and the suitors. Another portrayal of women in The Odyssey is the Sirens. This is a group of women whose seductive song lures sailors to their death (XII, 173-4). While Odysseus is able to avoid the Sirens, they symbolize temptation, another non-virtue, which is th... Free Essays on Odessey Women Free Essays on Odessey Women Many people regard Homer’s epics as war stories- stories about men; those people often overlook the important roles that women play in the Odyssey. While there are not many female characters in the Odyssey, the few that there are, play critical roles in the story and one can gain a lot of insight by studying how those women are portrayed. Homer portrays the females in conflicting ways: the character of Athena is given a strong, admirable role, while the Sirens are depicted in a much more negative way. Penelope- the central female character- is given both negative and positive attributes. Athena, the goddess of wisdom and battle, has a soft spot for Odysseus, the main male character, and Telemachus, Odysseus' son. The action begins with a meeting of the gods, where Athena makes a plea on behalf of Odysseus, asking her father, â€Å"O Zeus, what do you hold against him now?† (I, 81). This action, paired with another intervention into a meeting of the gods, shows Athena’s initiative and nerve. Athena shows cleverness and ingenuity when she disguises herself and others on several occasions: The goddess first appears as Mentes, and then later as Mentor, Telemachus himself, Penelope’s sister, a friend of Nausikaa’s, and various servants. Not only is Athena a master of disguises, but she also has an incredible sense of when it is necessary to appear as someone else in order to achieve her goals. While possibly just a product of Athena’s goddess status, her ability to view the â€Å"big picture† is quite a highly regarded trait. Athe na also has the virtue of restraint, which she demonstrates when she does not take part in the final battle between Odysseus and Telemachus, and the suitors. Another portrayal of women in The Odyssey is the Sirens. This is a group of women whose seductive song lures sailors to their death (XII, 173-4). While Odysseus is able to avoid the Sirens, they symbolize temptation, another non-virtue, which is th...

Attention Deficit Disorder Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Attention Deficit Disorder - Research Paper Example It is a disorder of hyperactivity and lack of attention as the name indicates. This inattentiveness leads to a cascade of symptoms which makes life very difficult for the patients and they find it difficult to cope with the surroundings (National Institutes of Mental Health 2008; Klass 2010). Attention Deficit Disorder tends to show varying signs and symptoms which may be scaled according to the severity. It tends to affect both boys and girls but the symptoms of increased activity and impulsiveness are seen in boys whereas lack of attention is seen more in girls. Inattentiveness leads to lack of concentration in particular situations as well as inability of focusing capabilities. This also results in lack of the ability to fulfill activities that require attention and focus. The symptoms of increased activeness are restlessness and increased habits of moving around. Impulsiveness is presented in the form of lack of patience and the expression of emotions irrespective of what the oth ers might feel about it (National Institutes of Mental Health 2008; Klass 2010). Radiological studies have highlighted the fact that the frontal lobe of the brain is affected by this disorder and it does not function at an optimal level in the patients suffering from Attention Deficit Disorder.

Culture and Careers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Culture and Careers - Essay Example Thailand is one of the most popular countries to visit. In cultural terms, there are several practices and beliefs that are rather distinct and different from Western societies. The traditional Thai greeting ‘wai’ is expressed with the two palms pressed together in a prayer like way. Acknowledging a ‘wai’ and returning is expected of everyone. Thai culture lays a significant amount of spiritual importance to certain parts of the human body. It is said that one should avoid pointing his or her feet at people, or even touching people with the feet, propping up the feet on tables, or stepping on people seated on the ground. In comparison, the head has much more importance and it is well-thought-out to be very rude to touch other people on the head. As well, it is said that people should not sit pillows since they are meant resting the head (Jones, 2003). The major religion which is followed in Thailand is Buddhism which is majorly influenced by the traditional beliefs which are associated with the ancestral and natural spirits. The belief of having spirits is incorporated in their Buddhist cosmology. On the basis of this belief Thai people own spirit and miniature houses which they believe contain live spirits. They provide food and drinks to such spirits which they believe keep them happy. According to the Thai people beliefs and their culture if these spirits are not happy they will impede the major portion of the household and will create chaos. Such spirit houses are found in public places and also on some of the streets of Thailand. In certain rural areas of Thailand, food is served while people are seated on the ground. Stepping over food is considered yet another very rude gesture and a source of immense embarrassment for a Thai host. At practically any place in Thailand, if one sees a pile of shoes at or close to the entrance of a home, shop, or a guest house, one should remove their own